THE  GERMAN OBOE ENSEMBLE IN GERMAN MILITARY AND CITY MUSIC UP TO 1720
Renate Hildebrand
Translation Jesse Read

Shortened version of the first two parts of a degree thesis at Schola Cantorum Basiliensis on “The Oboe Ensemble in Germany from the Beginnings to ca. 1720.”

It is a little known fact that the oboe and bassoon developed as solo instruments preceding their now well-known soloist-virtuoso status of the High Baroque and Classical periods. The areas of court, military, and city music deserve special attention, for here the members of oboe ensembles were joined together in “Hautboistenbanden” which had special responsibilities and social status as befitted performers of High Baroque “entertainment” music.The schalmei (shawm), whose use in military music of course went back much further, was used in the Brandenburg-Prussian army for the first time in 1646 four schalmeis served under the Great Elector-two schalmei, one alto pommer and one bass dulcian. This arrangement is typical until the 18th century as well in the bodyguard of the Prince of Zeitz. Von Fleming wrote this in 1725 about reed instruments in the army: “The schalmei are still in use; only four men are used: two descants, one alto and one dulcian.”

In the second half of the 17th century the French developed the oboe from their schalmei. Developments were made in fundamental points and it was thenceforth called the “hautbois” by the French. For the reed instruments, the decisive step in development was made at the same time as modifications in recorders (Block-and Querflöte) and in bassoons. These developments brought these instruments into use in “Art” music. The oboe and bassoon were now more flexible than their forerunners, less through the insignificantly narrower bore as through the modified form of the bell and the reduction of the tone hole size and especially through the embouchure by which the tightly stretched lips grasped the more refined reed and could thus better modulate the tone.Since only the instruments of the two reed families with the greatest potential for development continued to be made, some range was lost. Because of the considerable and unwieldy length, the lower-pitched instruments of the pommer family were always less flexible from the point of view of technique and sound than were the higher-pitched members, whereas with the higher-pitched dulcian instruments, different problems were encountered; it was more difficult to build the smaller doublebore instruments, their range was narrower and their sound and intonation worse. So in the 17th c. people returned to the most successful members of the instrument families which had been developing in the meantime these had already been built in their best forms as the first examples in their classes: in the Middle Ages the schalmei, then the alto pommer, and in the 16th c. the dulcian as a bass instrument.

Since the tradition of ensemble structure according to instrument families was still alive, and the double-reed instrument families of oboe and bassoon are closely related, a new ensemble with two oboes, alto oboe, and bassoon arose from these two groups. This corresponded to the ensemble with two schalmei, alto pommer and dulcian which was already common at the beginning of the 17th century.

At the court of Louis XIV, mostly marches, dance tunes, and airs were played with the new oboes in the above mentioned arrangement, with, however, a doubling of the voices. In the 1680’s French oboists with their new instruments and their ensemble structure came to Germany most of them as court musicians. Up to that time the oboe was unknown in French military music. Later however, the oboe made its appearance there, after the French oboists had become familiar with the German schalmei in the army.

An account from the year 1690 runs: “A few years ago, French schalmei players, known as ‘hautboisten’ became known and were used in battle.” In 1681, “four German schalmei players” and a “French hautbois”" played in the infantry regiment of Anhalt-Dessau. Whether he played the principal voice or whether he was intended for the instruction of the descants, or both, is not known. In 1695 in the army of the Bavarian Elector Maximilian Emanuel II, the infantry regiments had progressively changed to six oboists; however, the old schalmei ensemble was retained until the middle of the 18th century. Von Fleming wrote in 1726: “The regimental pipers were for a time also called schalmei pipers, and at the time such instruments which gave a clear tone were played in front of the regiment so as to encourage the ordinary soldier all the more. Subsequently they were, however, difficult to play, and at close range unpleasant to the ear, so instead of the German schalmei, the French oboe became popular, and is now used almost everywhere.”

Later, until the second half of the 18th c., there were six regimental oboists in Prussia, Bavaria, and Austria, according to von Fleming:

“Subsequently however, the oboe came into its own, so now there were six oboes, since the oboe sounded not so harsh as, but much sweeter than the schalmei. In order to improve the harmony even more, there were now two descants, two taille, and two bassoons,” so that it is clear that “oboe” had become the generic term for the instruments from descant to bass, just as later “Hautbois” is strictly a military term. “Taille” refers in this context to the alto oboe. In a bill from the instrument maker Jacob Denner to the Göttweig Monastery (Kloster Göttweig), “bassoon” was written in beside the bass oboe and also beside the bass members of the blockflöten and chalumeaux, as almost always the “bassoon” as the bass member of an oboe ensemble was distinguished from “fagott”, the bass member of an ensemble which included strings.

An original composition “for Oboists of the Court and Battlefield, arranged for four or more instruments playing” is “Die Lustige Feldmusik” by Johann Phillip Krieger, written in 1704 for two oboes, alto oboe and bassoon. With six voices, it was necessary to double the two oboe voices or the first oboe and the bassoon. Two other works for oboe ensembles, whose arrangement is known, but whose music is missing, are the “Ouverture a 4″ for “two oboes, one taille and one bassoon” by P. Wieland (ca. 1700), and the “Ouverturensuite a 4″ by Ph. Heinrich Erlebach (1657-1714) for two oboes, taille, and bassoon. The pitch distribution of such a four-voice piece corresponds to a piece for instruments of the violin (not the gamba!) family and thus enables the same music to be played on different instruments — an important circumstance for the oboists.

The Sonsfeld music collection in the possession of the Prussian General Friedrich Otto Freiherr von Wittenhorst-Sonsfeld (1678-1755) contains almost exclusively works from the early 18th century, in which several oboes and bassoons are required, in most cases accompanied by a trumpet. The six part-books of the manuscript collection bear the initials G. v. L. which very probably can be taken to mean that they once belonged to the Prussian General Georg von Lilien. A further notation on the part-books specifies under the respective instruments, the reed instruments first: Hautbois I. . . Hautbois II. . . Hautbois III. . . Taille . . . Bassoon I. . . Bassoon II. . . It therefore has to do with ouverturensuites and concerti, in most of which a trumpet plays above an oboe ensemble movement. For the vast majority of 52 works, no composer is given. The most common arrangement is trumpet, three oboes, taille, bassoon (or two bassoons). Occasionally two violins or two horns are added, or the taille is left out; in one case even two flutes and two cornets are combined with two oboes and two bassoons, in exceptional cases there are only reed movements without trumpet.

About 1720 a six-voice movement with two oboes, two horns and two bassoons made its appearance, indicating an exchange of tenor oboe for the horns. The earliest surviving infantry marches are written for this arrangement. This was the arrangement until the end of the 18th century, notably in Telemann’s Suite in F, in Haydn’s Divertimenti Hob. II No. 7, 15, and 23 and Mozart’s Divertimenti KV 213, 240, 252, 253, 270 and 289. The four-oboists band which made its debut at the Dresden Court Festival in 1719 had a simple four voice arrangement with three reed-players and one horn. Even before 1719 J. G. Store had written a march for two oboes, horn and bassoon. Von Fleming writes: “In the Royal Polish and the Elector of Saxony’s infantry it is arranged that with the six oboists yet two horn players must join, which produces a right pleasant harmony.”

Later the horn was joined by the clarinet which was invented at the beginning of the 18th c. The usual arrangement in the second half of the 18th c. then was: two oboes, two clarinets, two horns and two bassoons. The Mozart Serenades KV 375 and 388 and Haydn’s “Feld-Parthien Hob II 4143 were intended for this arrangement. In the Musikalischen Lexicon by H. Chr. Koch (1802) is found the heading, “Hoboisten, hoboistenchor”. The entry reads: “A beautiful wind music consisting usually of two oboes, two clarinets, two horns and two bassoons.”

To this Von Fleming adds: In the Royal Prussian and Brandenburg Elector’s regiments, a trumpeter on foot instead of a horn player goes ahead,” which, incidentally indicates the social decline of the formerly privileged trumpeter.

The oboists who were on the staff of the infantry regiments, played most importantly in the personal service of the commanders, who, in Brandenburg-Prussia until 1707 and even later, paid them out of their own pockets. Von Fleming writes about this service: “Every morning in front of the commander’s quarters, the oboists play a morning song, a march which he likes particularly, an entree and two minuets which he is particularly fond of; and in the evenings this is repeated, or whenever the officer has guests or calls an assembly, and they listen to violins and cellos and sweet flutes and other instruments. . .”

Military oboists came mostly from the “Stadtpfeifereien” (henceforth translated as “town musician groups”) and played many other instruments, and were frequently interchangeable (einsetzbar). Occasionally they even appeared in court chapel music ensembles. This is mentioned, for example, in 1704 at Sonderhausen and in 1706 at Schwerin. Reinhard Keiser writes to the court of Wurtemberg, that he has in mind a combining of the two good regimental bassoonists for his Suite for 8 oboes; and in the “Pageant of the Gods” in Dresden in 1695, seven bassoonists of the local sovereign’s own guards assisted 35 others.

In Leipzig the regimental oboists played outside the military at funerals, and in Sonderhausen at soldier’s funerals the Hautboistenkorps was especially important. Von Fleming reports on the burial of an officer: “The oboists walk before the body playing a dirge on muffled oboes.” A further function was, naturally: “The trumpets, drums, fifes and oboes encourage the soldiers in battles and attacks, they control marching advances and retreats.”

As already mentioned, until now the regimental oboists were of the civilian school, the best of whom were sure to seek places in the court, chapel, and city music ensembles. Those who went to the military as a rule were not the best. There was less demand (in the army) and the job was poorly paid. Mattheson cannot deny himself a parting shot: “However, the oboes were not played in the most delicate way (in the field or among the public where it is not so precisely taken) so I would rather hear a good jew’s harp or kazoo.” And von Fleming: “the trumpets, oboes and others of the same, which make too loud a noise, are damaging to the head and the health, they impair the lungs and deform the face; the cheeks and the eyes become swollen.”

In order to improve the level of playing King Friedrich Wilhelm of Prussia founded the “Hautboistenschule” in 1724 in the military orphanage in Potsdam. The first head of the school was Gottfried Pepusch, a brother of Johann Christoph. He was a member of the Brandenburg court chapel ensemble until its dissolution, and then remained as Staff Oboist and had many pupils, six of whom went to Hannover in 1701-2. Oboists were sent to Berlin for further instruction also, five by the Margrave von Ausbach.

As with court and free oboe bands, so also in the regimental bands “the first oboist had to understand composing, the music so much the better to order.” The Dessau March, for example, was composed by an oboist.  Unfortunately, nothing particularly concerning the oboe’s history can be gathered from the extensive information on town musical groups, so that it can be assumed that the oboe was adopted with very little fuss. In 1690 Kuhnau writes in his novel Musicus Vexatus that besides the importance of mastery of the trumpet, bomhart (pommer), cornet, trombone and dulcian, there was demanded a reasonable skill on the oboe and stringed instruments. Indeed in a report of the laying of a foundation in Glaucha in 1698, the town musicians marched with schalmei and bagpipes, nevertheless, after 1700 the schalmei was no longer mentioned in the town pipers groups.

Linked with this is an interesting regulation of the Prorector in Halle in 1703: “After nine o’clock in winter and ten o’clock in summer, all loud music, whether on horns, trumpets, and drums or oboes or post-horns is forbidden.” Also in Halle, in 1698, the Scheinhardtsche Companie was famous for attending luncheon tables with violins, oboes, horns, trumpets, kettledrums, and “French schalmei.”

The different instruments had particular tasks in the town music groups. For example, trombones were played, but never required, while strings were reserved for other special tasks. On the other hand, the oboe took on such a universal importance, that groups of musicians called themselves simply “hautboistenbanden” even though they played other instruments also, in order to show that they were available to play with the newly fashionable instrument, outdoors, in houses and churches on both solemn and gay occasions.

The town music group was, of course, an extended training school for the new generation of musicians. Besides stringed instruments the wind instruments were nevertheless their own domain. For example, the pupils at the Thomas school in Leipzig received wind instrument instruction from the town musical group, but instruction on the other instruments from Thomas-Kantor. A supplementary article to the Guild Records set out in 1662 by the Elector of Saxony forbade organists to instruct their pupils on wind instruments, since this was the role of the town musicians. Most of the court and regimental musicians had received their five to six years instruction in the town musicians ensemble.

The town musicians saw to it carefully that they would have no competition. In 1689 it was ordered in Chemnitz that schalmeis were to be played only by town musicians. In addition, in 1702 King Friedrich I of Prussia bestowed the privilege of public oboe playing on the “Hyntzschen Companie” which caused the town musicians great loss. At the time there were about 30 oboists in Halle, however they were only permitted to play the oboe for private occasions or outside the city gates as long as they were excluded from the privilege. Here, as a schoolboy of Zachow, who himself came from a town musicians group, Handel learned to appreciate the oboe and probably composed his trio sonatas for two oboes and basso continuo.

The chapter on town musicians should not be ended without mentioning the Denners, father and son, Johann Schell, and other Nuremberg makers of woodwind instruments, who were contemporary with the town musicians of Nuremberg, which in part explains the quality of the Nuremberg instruments. The spontaneous expansion in Germany of the originally French oboe is essentially thanks to these instrument craftsmen. The oboe parts of Bach’s works show to whose ability the town pipers owe their success.

The so-called “stadtoboists” deserve mention. Such musicians of the city “miliz” were designated for the first time in 1716 in Frankfurt: “six oboists in their fine uniforms walked before the troops playing Telemann’s March.” In Leipzig in 1720 the Stadtmiliz employed oboists as well as drummers and flautists, about 1750 this group was called the “Stadthautboisten.” As a rule the group consisted of six men, as in the military groups and was put together mostly from dismissed regimental musicians, who had to be given a place in civilian service. Their duties included playing for the guard, and for festivities and processions of the town. They could play privately in taverns by the city gate. In the second half of the 18th century we no longer find these (miliz) musicians in the city records, just as free oboe ensembles, in Halle for example (see above) are no longer mentioned outside of particular occasions.

FOOTNOTES

[1] The idea of German schalmei arose in the 17th c. and referred to instruments which were described by James Talbot in 1700 thus: “They are used in the German army, but have a sweeter sound than the schalmei of other countries. They have only six key holes, no key for the lowest tone, but instead a fontanelle, and the lowest tone with six covered holes is C’.” Such instruments are preserved in many museums, among them Brussels, Nuremberg, Basel and Leipzig. [return]

BANGING THE DRUM SLOWLY and QUICKLY

TWO factors which brought a forceful crescendo to the military band were the so-called Janissary Music and the inordinate military and social zeal aroused by the French Revolution,

The Oriental influence was nothing new in the field of Military music. We have seen the Saracen influence in the Middle Ages. At the Renaissance, the French) envious of the kettle drums of the Hungarians, already borrowed from the Turks, introduced them into West as timballes These Tamballes, were reserved for royalty arid corps of elite cavalry, although artillery had them mounted on a chariot. Oboe bands, as we know, were also an Eastern plagiarism, and in the early eighteenth century further borrowed plumes from the Turks found favor. Janissary Musicwhich meant the adoption of the bass drum, thedeep but portable kettledrum and the tambourine, together with cymbals, triangle and “Jingling Johnny”, the last word being a popular imitation of the Turkish name chahana. The credit for having introduced this batterv of percussion and concussion into Europe usually goes to Poland which, in the 1720′S, had received a full Turkish band from the Sultan. Russia, ‘not to be outdone, sought a similar favor of the Sultan in 1725, Prussia and Austria following suit, and by the 1770′S most other countries had fallen under the sway of Janissary Music. Later borrowers dispensed with hiring Ottoman performers Negroes being employed in their stead because these had long been employed as trumpeters and drummers in European armies. In the British army we see cymbals in the 24th Foot (1777), with bass drum and tambourine added in the Royal Artillery (1782), and a Jingling Johnnie and a tambourines in the Coldstream_Guards(1785).

These “blacks” as they were designated on the muster rolls displayed great ability and agility in the handling of these percussion instruments. Dressed in the most outlandish Eastern style, and by performing their rhythmic functions they added not only to the gaiety of nations but to the rehabilitation of military music from a military point of view. In 1786 the British War Office had actually forbidden the “band” to be used for parading, but the new exotic craze helped to bring about the restoration of the musically cadenced step. Many of the march books of the period reveal that the instruments employed and music were Turkish in content . The military band did not retain sole possession of Janissary Music. Mozart used this medium in the Opera SERAGLIO(1781) and Haydn in the MILITARY SYMPHONY (1794) Hector Belioz is quoted as having said that the “alien instruments” had come to stay as they were cradled in the orchestral score but having been born in the military band .

One of the contributory reasons for the emergence of military band instruments other than the simplistic instruments associated with what was called HARMONIE-MUSIK was the necessity to develop tonal colours and balance within the military band. Th addition of percussion and the advancement of wind instruments made this condition possible.

When the French Revolution broke out in 1789 military music in France was at a low ebb. Within a year France became the military music luminaries of western Europe.The watch words of the revolution ,”Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity” were but grand slogans which needed to have some cultual attachment to make the message clear to the populace with sights and sounds. It was then that the French devolped the grand national festivals. The raison detre to celebrate the revolution became the monster parades and out door concerts with massive bands and choirs all singing and playing to praise and further the philosophical doctrine of Mirabeau and Voltaire.

An outstanding part of the open-air fetes was played by the newly-formed band of the National Guard. Raised in 1789 by Bernard Sarrette with 45 performers who were taken over the following year by the Paris Municipality. In 1792 the band was suppressed and although the band had limited success it became the focal point for the establishment of the ECOLE ROYALE de CHANT (later the Conservatory of Music) and the school was the mainstay for the provision of military musicians for the numerous French military bands which began to become established. The instrumentation of bands during the revolutionary period is of importance to the history . of military music itself. As planned by the Conservatory the military band of 1779 consisted of I flute; 6 clarinets, 3 bassoons, 1 trumpet, 2 horns, 1 serpent, with bass drum and cymbals.. The massed bands for the fetes were of enormous dimensions.

As planned by the Conservatory the military band of 1779 consisted of I flute; 6 clarinets, 3 bassoons, 1 trumpet, 2 horns, 1 serpent, with bass drum and cymbals.. The massed bands for the fetes were of enormous dimensions. . On one occasion there were 10 flutes, 30 clarinets, 18 bassoons, 4 trumpets, 2 curved tuba, 4 buccins 12 horns, trombones, 8 Serpent; with 10 side-, bass and kettle drummers, cymbals and triangle beaters.

Indeed, for spectacular effects, three hundred drummers could be mustered for a prodigious roll when needed. In this instrumentation one observes the temporary eclipse of the oboe by the clarinet. This was because the latter instrument, played with the reed uppermost and an embouchure produced a clarino (high trumpet sound. The clarinet also had a very good range from the chalameau (low register)’ to the sopranino register. Then there was the Small F flute as help in the higher registers, and Berlioz thought that such an instrument would be serviceable in ordinary orchestras Lastly, and more importantly, there was the addition of the trombone and serpent so as to give greater weight to the foundations of the wind ensemble.

The reaction to the radical changes in French bands was not .long in making itself in making itself manifest elsewhere. Germany not wishing to usurped immediately created a Guards band with an instrumental establishment of 1 piccolo 2 clarinets, 2 bassoons 1 trumpets, 3horns, 1 serpent and 6 Schlaginstrumente(percussion). Britain also saw the value of a balanced instrumentation although influenced by the French Model as seen in Grenadier Guards band of 1794 with 1 flute, 6 clarinets, 3 bassoons, 1 trumpet, 3 horns,, 2 serpents and the Janisserary percussion. It was agreed that by 1794 France, Germany and Britain certainly were at the leading edge of military bands world wide.

Returning to the hub of the military band world band world in France, we see that the band of the National Guard numbered twenty-seven. Cavalry bands were eventually raised and handsomely furnished with 16 trumpets, 6 horns and .3 trombones, to which kettledrurns were added in cuirassiers and carbiniers. The newest band which was raised was the Consular band which eventually took the place of the National Guard band and won fame under directors Michel Gebauer and Mathieu Blasius. and the oboe had been restored Under the Empire (1804), with Napolean, a larger band was allowed the Imperial Guard It was for this combination that Paer composed his four Grande Marches for Napoleon’s wedding with Marie Louise in 1810.

What contributed most to France’s pre-eminence in military music was the requirement for it. Secondly, it had composers of the mettle of Gossec, Catel and Mehul and Cherubini living and working in France. Thirdly, the band of the National Guard was composed of some of finest wind band players in Europe”. The output for the military band was enormous. In addition to the innumerable quick steps and other parade band and marching music, as well as the settings of patriotic songs, there were symphonies, suites and overtures of the first rank composed for this combination. Gossec was already a pioneer in music before the Revolution broke out, having been the first to broach the symphonic form, to use a military band with an orchestra, and to demonstrate the value of the Clarinet and trombone in the latter. The Revolution, with its clear cut with the past, provided a medium for new and vibrant works from his facile pen.

In terms of “form”, the symphonies of Gossec take first place. There is one in ‘C which comprises one movement only; another, in F, of two movements. They may not be what we know discern as symphonies but, the three movements were quite an engaging and animated work work. His Marche Lugubre, written for the translation of the body of Voltaire (1791), with those preludial notes ‘for ‘the gong and kettledrums, is a somber , moving dirge. Of greater consequence are the symphonies of Catel, who shared honors with Gossec in directing the bands. His symphony in F, written in the Hayden style is an exhilarating piece of writing, whilst the one in C displays some daring modulations, almost modem in their audacity. A symphony by Louis Jadin is even more, advanced in its bolder harmonies and, incidentally, reveals a striking prophesy of what Felix Mendelssohn was to write in the Scherzo of the “Reformation” Symphony.

The overtures by the composers of the Revolution are even better than the so-called symphonies. Two by Catel are of some importance, especially the one in F but another, in C, by Louis Jadin, is superior in many ways, with some unconventional touches in harnony and a quaint ryhmic shadowing of the Finale in Beethoven’s Symphony in C minor. Lastly, there is an overture in F by Hyacinthe Jadin a brother Louis Jadin which stands an easy first among the overtures of the revolutionary “period. Practically all of this music has passed out of use but remain as outstanding treasures of military band music. Ca Ira attributed to the drummer Becourt is an outstanding example of music which has withstood the test of time. It remains a well known and often played march.

Turning to Germany the great composers of this era also lent their hand to the creation of band music. Dittersdorf, Franz Hoffmeister ,Pleyel,Franz Kummer began writing for the band combinations. Some of the music was forgettable but it was important material to add to the repertoire. Beethoven also saw the military band asa good medium. Most of the music falls within the period which closes with the events of 1815. His earliest compositions include the Rondino and the Octetor Parthia in Eb (1872 which was the originally written as String Quartet (opus 4). He followed these works with his sparkling tattoo music (ZAPFENSTRICH) of 1809the one in F having been written for the Bohemian Landswehr. These were followed by the Polonaise Ecossaise and the March in F (1810) . The march for 2 clarinets,2 horns and 2 bassoons although undated was a fine composition for the period. His march in D written in 1816 is an example of his finest writing for the wind ensemble. The full score for this march indicates that save for the ommission of the trombone it is very much equal to modern instrumentation(no saxophones of course) He also employed the F clarinet which had been used in the French Bands previously. It was useful asa outdoor backup for flutes. The march is certainly in advance of anything previously. Beethoven wrote to publisher and said” this march could be played by several bands united, but even if one band lacked instrumentation it could be easily utilized by leaving out some of the parts”. He foresaw the versatility of bands and their ability to adapt themselves with samll or large combinations. A hundred and fifty years passed before formula band writing was discovered.

Band music in Britain had also begun to expand with the Royal Artillery band mustering thirty-eight performers in 1812 including boys and Janisserary. The Coldstram Guards had risen from twelve in 1785 to twenty-two in 1815. The King’s regulations also were changed to allow line bands to have as many as twelve performers by allowing one bandsman per company. Bandmasters were now beginning to have more attention paidto their merits as leaders such as George McKenzie of the Royal Artillery while John Mahon and Edward Hopkins became the leaders of the Scots of Third Guards band. One of the attactions of Life in 18th century London was the “Guard Mounting” at St James Palace which began around 1818.

There also sprung up another universal type of band and that was the bands for militia, volunteers,Yoemanry and fensibles. These bands which were formed mostly in Britain were of very high quality. In many instances they were led by well known local musicians. The abundance of new music also helped to createa healthy atmosphere for the bands. It is also interesting to note that much of the music from this period was published and in reviewing the scores we find that the composers were very serious about their work and the the quality. The music also tells us that the performers were of very high standards particularly in works that were arranged from orchestral sources.

Thus we can see a pattern emerging which shows that the developing musical instruments in tandem with the literature and the evolution of the military musician were entering a new sphere and a new world was dawning for the military band.

THE GENIUS of MOZART

IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF MILITARY MUSIC.

France was not only leading the wind-instrumental world at the opening of the eighteenth century but she was looked upon as the fount of this art. Both England and Scotland had been influenced in their adoption of oboe bands. Even Germany was as affected by Gallic military modes, in its music if in nothing else. Yet the lands beyond the Rhine were already displaying themselves to advantage in the higher branches of the art and were certainly busy in improving their bands, so much so that they were soon to leave France behind.  Many changes had been forced upon instrumentation. Crumhornes and cornetts had passed out of use by the turn of the century, although Gluck was using cornetts much later. With the oboe becoming a simpler instrument to play it soon was able to push itself in a melodic sense to the forefront. The bassoon also became a very useful instrument replacing the bombard instruments and also the trombone fell into neglect. The alteration in the coiling of the tube of the horn (and this was why it became known as the “French horn”) gave this instrument a new and useful position in wind bands.  The greatest novelty was the emergence of the clarinet, an instrument said to have been “invented” in 1696. When all these band instruments appeared in the military band is not certain yet one feels instinctively that most of them spent their prentice years in open-air bands before they were patronized by indoor orchestras. Unfortunately we are denied complete documents from French sources regarding the state of military music during the first half of the eighteenth century. German army bands of 1706 consisted of 2 oboes, 2 trumpets or horns, 2 bassoons plus drums ordered or fixed by Frederick the Great by the mid 18th c., who was quite familiar to Mozart and Beethoven.

In Britain there is a fund of documents about regimental bands although not so complete in the earlier years as available elsewhere. As late as 1731 the band of the Honorable Artillery Company was confined to “one curtail, three oboes, and no more”. In 1746 there is reference in a parliamentary report to the music, hautbois and fifers of the Foot Guards.   It is not until 1762 when the famous Royal Artillery Band was formed in Germany that we get a precise instrumentation of 2 trumpets, 2 French Horns and 4 hautbois or clarinetts.  The Artillery band increased in size to 10 players in 1792 and twelve in 1798. Many of the British Regiments had at least 8-10 musicians in their ranks. Cavalry bands also moved with the times and adopted oboes into their bands along with trumpets and kettledrums. Also, they were augmented by bassoons. In 1767 the Horse Guards  had very strong combinations which included trumpets ,oboes, bassoons and drums. A rather stimulating combination even without a trombone-but in 1769 two bassoons were added. At the same time it must be understood that excepting the Royal Artillery, the Life Guards, the Horse Guards, the Horse Grenadier Guards and the Foot Guards, all “Bands of Musick” in the army were unofficial although tolerated.  This was also the rule in France to some extent. Here, military bands, and even military music in general, had deteriorated. The Uhlans of Marshal Saxe in 1741 the Gardes Francaises and a regiment of Croats had bands of horns, bassoons and cymbals. Whilst a Harmonie-Musik formula was still the rule, the Instruments were frequently doubled, as in 1762 when the French Guards had the performers in their bands increased from eight to sixteen, and in 1738 to twenty-four.

Thus far we have been able to comprehend the growing strength and the widening instrumentation of the military band. This name had now come to mean in Britain the army band, because the latter had quite eclipsed the old town band, which had almost died out. In most instances the membership of army bands consisted of hired professionals, a position which stood military musicians in good stead occasionally. When the Swedish garrison of Demmin capitulated in 1759 the ARTICLES OF SURRENDER read “The hautbois and musicians being paid by the officers shall be at liberty. In one of Marlborough’s campaigns, when the oboes of a French regiment were ordered to strike up battle music to cheer their comrades they couldn’t be found. It appears that after the first shots had been fired the the oboes made their exit. Evidently they were pleased with the “pomp”‘ but not the “circumstance”.  In Britain, it is said, the first band of enlisted musicians was the 1st Foot Guards (Grenadiers) in 1749.

The rising importance musically of the military band brought the definite recognition of its leader or director who, throughout the eighteenth and the first half of the nineteenth century, led his band with his instrument, often the oboe. He was dubbed the Master Musician or Music major in Britain, Kapellmeister in Germany, and Capo-Musica in Italy. In the United Kingdom there was a craze for foreigners as bandmasters, usually Germans and Italians.  Among these aliens were some names of eminence. The famous astronomer Sir William Herschel, a Hanoverian, was bandmaster of the Durham Militia; John Kohler an instrument maker was bandmaster of the Lancashire Volunteers; Johann Logier, an early musical textbook author was in a similar position in the Killkenny Militia.  The appeal of the military band because of its portability was lending to its success. True, the primary purpose of this institution was army duties, that is to provide music for the marching, lifting the spirits of the soldier in battle and to brighten and comfort soldiers in their bivouacs and in barracks. Yet there was considerably more to the new art form.

Kipling once wrote “there is no greater asset to recruiting than the band”. Since the officers supported regimental music by contributions to a “band fund”, they took every opportunity of using the regimental band for their own pleasures, even to have the band perform on civic or private occasions. In other words, they began to enter the orbit which had been the purview of town bands. In many centers of music the bands began to have regular subscription concerts. This fact is born out by the programs of the Royal Artillery Band in England. The Terraces of Versailles held numerous concerts featuring first the French Gardes du Corps and later colossal bands of the National Guard who played for the festivals of the Republic.

The actual music played by military bands of the period does not reveal any drastic departure from the music which preceded it. The most important element being the march, and this was practiced in two, if not three forms the slow march, which the Germans called the parade march the quick march which the French called the pas redouble and the double quick march which was called the pas de charge. The slow march was taken at 80 paces to the minute in Britain. Examples of the slow march can be found in march books from the past including a book called WARLIKE MUSIC … a collection of marches and Trumpet tunes. The contributors to this collection included the venerable Mr. Handel, and the book contains slow marches which were from the realm of opera including SCIPIO and RINALDO.  The quick march with a tempo of MM.=100 was in 2/2 or 2/4 (6/8 marches were mostly in vogue in Britain).  Prussia originated the quick march in the 6/8 meter and the idea spread rapidly through Europe. The custom of units employing distinctive folk songs as regimental marches both in quick and slow time began during this period (circa 1760-1800) The marches were often in the 6/8 meter and were performed during regimental occasions. Most of these marches have been preserved. Germany prized it’s historic marches -Der alte Deassauer  (1705) Hohenfriedberger(1745) and Coburger (c 1750).  Austria also developed some glorious marches including The Prinz Eugen March Pappenhiemer and the Musketiers von Friedland.

Despite the artistic progress of the military band the movement had not attracted the great composers. Reinhard Keiser(1674-1739) the creator of German opera was the first to patronize the wind ensemble by composing two suites for military band most likely based on his operas and dated 1715 noted as Kayserliche Friedens Post. Nicholas Hasse is the composer of an AUFZUG (fanfare style) for 2 trumpets and two kettledrums (1750).The British Museum houses several early numbers for military band including Handel’s overture to his Fireworks Music (1749) scored for 3 trumpets, three horns, 3 oboes, 2 bassoons with a contra-bassoon and kettledrums. In browsing the score one is taken with the massive tutti scoring that must have given listeners an earful at this very early period.

C.P.E. Bach wrote numerous compositions for the smaller Harmonie Musik combination of six, as well as for seven and eight players. Johann Christian, the London Bach, composed marches for this type of band, whilst Michael Haydn did a Turkish March for twelve instruments and percussion. His brother, the greater Haydn, contributed divertimenti and Feldpartien items for the military band, and when in England he wrote two marches for the Prince of Wales, afterwards George IV, and another two for the Volunteer Cavalry of Derbyshire.

The divertinmento was, like the partita, a suite of several movements, whilst the equally favored Military Concerto was an instrumental solo, usually with variations. The only other music of the concert type for the military band was for the most part arrangements from operas and oratorios. One recalls how this is illustrated in the second act of Mozart’s great opera where Don Giovanni’s band of Harmonie-Musik entertains him at dinner with extracts from current operas including Figaro. On the whole it cannot be said that there is anything arresting in the wind-band music of the period. Gluck might have done something, and we know that he was invited to contribute to French military music. Of course he may have been  made aware of France’s slow development in this sphere, and Rousseau had been cruelly contemptuous of this music. Even later, if one peruses the marches of Pugnani (he was director of militarv music to the Duke of Piedmont), the suites by W. F. E. Bach a grandson of Johann Sebastian or the works of Sussmayer the friend of Beethoven, it is crystal clear that no great progress had been made in wind-band music since Lully’s time.

It was not until Mozart’s genius streaked across the sky that one discerns fresh ideas in the treatment of the instruments of the wind band. His ten years’ experience (1773-82) in composing a score of divertimenti and serenades and the like for the wind ensemble had enlightened him on the wider capabilities and the greater beauties of its instruments. That for which he scored was the ordinary town band–2 oboes, 2 horns, and 2 bassoons–although after 1781 he preferred clarinets to oboes, except when he used both. Occasionally he added 2 cor-anglais or 2 basset horns, Even the cavalry band instrumentation fascinated him, 5 or 6 trumpets and a pair of kettledrums, with 2 flutes, these latter were probably fifes, which had become popular with cavalry bands, even in Britain.

“I have now no light task to get my opera (Il Seraglio) arranged for military hand,” wrote Mozart in July 1732 ”You cannot Imagine the difficulty of arranging an opera for military hand, to make it fit for wind instruments without sacrificing any of the effects.” Whatever the difficulties in this task of arranging, Mozart was certainly a master hand at scoring in this domain, a trail which he was to blaze for others, It was just as well perhaps that Mozart came at this particular time to break down the conservative notions of writing in the monotonous vertical treatment of military literature up to that point. In any case, there had been scarcely any recognition of the precise characteristics of individual instruments in pre-Mozart days.  The use of clarinets in his symphonic works and his concerti for clarinet changed the entire perspective for the military band. The employment of the full dimensions of this instrument was one of the most  important catalysts in the development of the wind band . There were other vital changes coming to the military band, for the most part extrinsic, but fortunately the Salzburg master had already settled what was intrinsic before these changes came.

SOUNDS OF WAR

When we read of “Military Music” we instinctively visualize “the pomp and circumstance of glorious war”. It is true that the term strictly belongs to the music of the armed throng but the expression in this sense is almost a misnomer.  It has come to signify any combination of wood-wind, brass and percussion instruments as distinct from the so-called “string band” or orchestra. Indeed, it has been claimed that the phrase “wind band” would be more acceptable because the brass band could also find inclusion under such a label. So be that as it may, the fact remains that the modern military band in its wider significance, was cradled, nurtured and developed to its present perfection under the need and stress of martial array. Yet, strange as it may seem we have no modern history of its development.

Over half a century ago, a well-known army bandmaster J.A.Kappey, pointed out how serious was this flaw in our histories of music. “While historians”, he wrote, “reveled in descriptions of the grandeur of ecclesiastic compositions, of the music of the princely palaces or the royal playhouses, the music of the people has been passed over with almost contemptuous indifference and it seems as if they were, so to say, ashamed to mention the poor cousin who found inspiration in the open air or went ‘a-soldiering’. “Since those days our ideas of the military band have changed materially and its music has, at long last, come into its own. In feudal days, kings and those of a like estate took unto themselves the trumpet’s blast as a royal prerogative and nobody save those of the courtly circle dared to sound the silver, snarling trumpets”. Thus trumpet bands were developed by the elect and courts the world over used their brilliant fanfares, not merely as “sonorous metal blowing martial sounds”, but as a recognized part of regal insignia. The incisive flourish at a King’s oral proclamation became as confirmative an essential as the impressed seal upon an indicted royal decree. Those of lesser social dignity had to be content with the coarser-sounding horn. Needless to say, both of these instruments played an important part in time of war where their potency In conveying signals and in daunting the enemy is often paraded in martial annals.

In castles and fortified towns there were other military musicians who kept watch from towers and blew horns when danger threatened. They were called “Waits” in Britain, a name which still survives in the nocturnal musicians who serenade at Christmas time. It was no different on the Continent, in the Netherlands we read that “die Wachter blaest sines horen”; in Flanders that the Wettes did a like duty; in Germany that the Turmer or tower-men sounded their horns at specific hours, which was precisely the function of the Waits in England.

In the actual military array proper of western Europe, only trumpets and horns were used until the eleventh century, and this is what we see with the Crusaders when they took the field against the Saracens. In the French Romans d’Alexandre (1180) we read of cors, buisnes and grailes.  It was no better with the English, whose valiant king Richard marshaled his warriors to the sounds of the tuba, lituus and buccina.  In the opposing Saracen army there was a much wider range of instruments in the trumpet (nafir), horn (buq), reedpipe (zamr), shawm( surnay), drum (tabl), kettledrum (naqqara), cymbals (sunuj), and bells (jalajil)). Further, their players were organized into a band which played unceasingly during the conflict for tactical purposes. As a result of the impingement of oriental ideas on the occident we find the latter adopting this new use of military music together with such instruments as the anafil, naker, and sonajas, whose very names tell of their Arabic origin.  As we have seen, it was only the king’s trumpets which sounded in battle, but now all kinds of shawms, reedpipes, horns and drums were employed separately as a military band. If the former conveyed the “signs of war”, it was the latter which inflamed the souls of the warriors and created fear in the enemy.

Although Chaucer tells us that there were the instruments in the battle that “blew terrible sounds”, they were also used in combination by wandering minstrels who roamed through the countryside, and could be heard in courtyards and in castles and market squares. It was in the hands of the minstrels that the entire aspects of music changed. They were the first “road bands” touring through many countries picking up exotic musical forms and fresh ideas for lyrics , music, and  rhythms.  Their work was met with a formidable foe in the church and state who became alarmed because their interests were undermined by the newcomers who provided popular music as opposed to secular. Out of this repressive order grew the music Guilds which eventually became the source for the various combinations of trumpeters, minstrel groups and town bands.  In Germany the Guilds were very well supported by patrons. The members were trained in various musical duties and required special diplomas after four years of study to gain acceptance to the Guilds. The minstrel guild system played a very big part in the development of wind music and the wind ensemble.

The princely houses of Europe had very well defined instrumental combinations. For example, King Edward III of England had as his “Musik”, 5 trumpets, 2 clarions, 5 pipes, 3 waits and a drum available for outdoor music. Under Edward IV, court minstrels consisted of thirteen players, trumpets, shawms and small pipes. The trombone (sakbut) made its appearance later in the realm of Henry VII where there were 9 trumpets, and shawms. The trombone was the natural bass instrument for this combination.

A brief review of “Military Music” attests to the influence of the Renaissance in Europe. The rebirth of the classical art of war led to the return of the ancient concept of martial music and the replacement of regal trumpets and leather-lunged minstrels with instrumentalists attached to units of cavalry and infantry. Military textbooks within the period of the Renaissance are abundantly filled with information as to what was required of military musicians.

The Swabian infantry of Maximilian had a drummer and fifer in each company of foot and a trumpeter in each troop of Horse.  In the realm of Francis I of France there were two fifers and 4 tambourines allowed to every thousand men.  In England the allocation was more generous as in 1557 a regiment of foot might have a drum and fife band of twelve players.

There was much in the pomp of war to keep such combinations busy. The playing of marches was a necessity and was described in Garrard’s Art of Warre (1591) when he said “According to the stroke of the drum,…so shall they go, just and even, with a gallant and sumptuous pace, for by doing so they shall be honoured and commended of the lookers on, who shall take wonderful delight to behold them”.  This reference is the first notation on what is known today as a Ceremonial parade. Classical music contained several snippets of military music. The music heard in Jannequin’s Bataille 1515, contained French Cavalry calls. Many of the marches were unpretentious and were simple tunes and airs which had a spirited melody and with the addition of rhythmic figurations made them popular among troops.

The growth of military band music also had an impact on the rise of the town bands in Europe. As early as the fourteenth century the Waits or watch-tower musicians were combining with the pipes to provide entertainment for the citizenry. This led to the pipers being termed “bandsmen” for the town bands and began to include fifes, shawms, cornett and crumhorne  (a double reed instrument ) trombone and drum. A drawing by Durer at Nuremberg of a town band at about 1423 shows a shawm, 2 bombards (very early Tuba) 2 trombones, a fife and a drum.  In the Netherlands  we find 6 to 9 stadspipers.